TVET and Metaverse Development in Malaysian Higher Education Institutions (HEIs)

With the increasing maturity of metaverse technology, TVET education is undergoing significant transformation. The metaverse provides an innovative method for teaching and learning, effectively addressing the limitations of traditional vocational education platforms. Through the metaverse, students can engage in interactive learning within a virtual environment, achieving a more immersive training experience. This technology enables practical operations in a secure virtual space, especially suitable for high-risk or high-cost professional training. Additionally, the metaverse promotes the global sharing and exchange of educational resources, presenting broader development opportunities for TVET education. To some extent, the metaverse will bridge the challenges faced by TVET education in Malaysia.

Research Framework and Hypotheses

Technology Elements

The Metaverse offers significant advantages over existing technologies and alternative solutions, such as higher interactivity and more realistic immersive experiences (Gokasar et al., 2023; Shamim et al., 2024). These features directly enhance users' evaluation of perceived usefulness (Kim et al., 2024). Compatibility with users' existing needs and working methods further strengthens this positive evaluation (Shirowzhan et al., 2020; Islam, 2016). Additionally, technologies with lower complexity are easier for users to understand and use (Toufaily et al., 2021), further enhancing perceived usefulness. Therefore, it can be inferred that technological factors significantly positively impact perceived usefulness.

High compatibility technology allows users to adopt new technologies easily without significantly adjusting their behavior (Chatterjee et al., 2021; Venkatesh et al., 2012), greatly improving perceived ease of use. Technologies with lower complexity reduce users' psychological burden through intuitive interface design and simple operation steps (Dang et al., 2020). Simplifying operational processes and reducing learning costs also improve perceived ease of use (Liu et al., 2019). Therefore, it can be concluded that technological factors positively promote perceived usability.

Hypotheses related to technology factors

Organisational Elements

Top Management Support

Top management support provides the necessary resources, policies, and strategic direction for introducing new technologies (Boonstra, 2013). This support brings clear goals and confidence to employees (Men et al., 2020). For example, active support from top management can significantly increase perceived usefulness within an organisation (Gangwar et al., 2015). Additionally, high levels of technological readiness in organisations lead users to recognise the value of technology in improving efficiency, optimising business processes, and increasing perceived usefulness (Chang & Chen, 2021).

Organisational Readiness

Improving organisational readiness provides a comprehensive infrastructure and support system for technology implementation (Uren & Edwards, 2023). When organisational technology and human resources are adequately prepared, users find it more convenient and efficient to use technology (Hradecky et al., 2022). Organisational readiness ensures that the necessary resources and support systems are in place, making it easier for users to adopt new technologies.

Hypotheses related to organisational factors

Environmental Elements

Competitive Pressure

Competitive pressure forces organisations to constantly innovate to maintain market competitiveness (Singh et al., 2021). Kwon et al. (2021) found that external competitive pressure can drive companies to adopt new technologies and increase their perceived usefulness. Furthermore, competitive pressure prompts organisations to quickly adopt and implement new technologies, improving employees' evaluation of perceived ease of use (Kwon et al., 2021).

External Support

External support can increase the feasibility and application value of technology (Umstead et al., 2021). This includes training and technical support services from technology suppliers, which can effectively enhance users' perceived ease of use (Maroufkhani et al., 2020). The presence of external support significantly reduces uncertainty and complexity, improving users' confidence and usability awareness (Gumusluoğlu & Ilsev, 2009).

Government Regulation

Government regulatory policies and incentive measures, such as tax incentives and innovation subsidies, can accelerate technology promotion and enhance enterprises' awareness of its usefulness (Wang et al., 2021). Government regulation, through normative and supportive policies, can help enterprises implement and use technology more smoothly, reducing obstacles to technology adoption and further enhancing its usability (Brandao et al., 2020; Ali et al., 2020).

Government Regulation

Government regulatory policies and incentive measures, such as tax incentives and innovation subsidies, can accelerate technology promotion and enhance enterprises' awareness of its usefulness (Wang et al., 2021). Government regulation, through normative and supportive policies, can help enterprises implement and use technology more smoothly, reducing obstacles to technology adoption and further enhancing its usability (Brandao et al., 2020; Ali et al., 2020).

Hypotheses related to Environmental Elements

Perceived Ease of Use Impact on Perceived Usefulness and Hypothesis

Perceived ease of use refers to the user's perception of how user-friendly and effortless a technology is to use (Chaw et al., 2024). Technologies that require minimal effort are often considered more useful (Liu et al., 2019). Kwok et al. (2020) found that perceived ease of use positively impacts perceived usefulness among users using virtual reality for crisis management training. Similarly, Nyazabe et al. (2023) demonstrated that perceived ease of use positively influenced the usefulness of an educational-based Blockchain system in higher education institutions in DR Congo. Based on this evidence, we propose the following hypothesis:

Perceived Usefulness Impact on Trust and Intention to Use and Hypotheses

Perceived usefulness refers to an individual's perception of how a system can improve their job performance (Wang et al., 2024; Venkatesh et al., 2023). In the context of this study, the more management and educators of HEIs perceive the metaverse TVET to be useful, the more likely they are to trust that metaverse TVET will improve learning. Perceived usefulness has been proven to positively influence adoption intention in many studies (Ali et al., 2024; Natasia et al., 2022; Wang et al., 2024). Industry 5.0 has brought about a significant shift in how technology is used and integrated into business functions, and its influence in the years to come cannot be underestimated (Pal & Arpnikanondt, 2021). Therefore, we foresee that metaverse TVET courses will soon be accepted into the education system. Thus, the following hypotheses are proposed:

Perceived Ease of Use Impact on Trust and Intention to Use and Hypotheses

Hansen et al. (2018) showed that when users perceive a technology to be easy to use, they are more likely to believe that the technology can bring them value and reduce errors and uncertainty during use. Davis (1989) pointed out in his Technology Acceptance Model (TAM) that perceived ease of use directly affects users' trust in technology. Users do not have to worry about the complexity of technology operations and can rely more on it. Perceived ease of use increases users' confidence, reduces frustration, and enhances trust in technology (Lee & Coughlin, 2015). Therefore, perceived ease of use has a significant positive impact on technology trust. Venkatesh & Davis (2000) found that the ease of use of technology is one of the key factors influencing intention to use. If users believe that the technical operation is simple and does not require much effort or time to learn and adapt, they will be more inclined to use the technology (Mohammadi, 2015). Perceived ease of use reduces uncertainty and distress during use, allowing users to be more relaxed and proactive when facing new technology (Abdullah et al., 2016), thereby enhancing their adoption intentions. Conversely, if technology is considered complex and difficult to operate, users' intention to use it will significantly decrease (Kasilingam, 2020). Therefore, perceived ease of use has a positive effect on usage intention. Thus, the following hypotheses are proposed:

Trust in Technology and Impact on Intention to Use and Hypothesis

Kabra et al. (2017) showed that when users have a high level of trust in technology, they are more likely to form positive usage intentions and ultimately decide to adopt the technology. Additionally, Harrison McKnight et al. (2002) found that users' trust in technology can reduce the risks and uncertainties they may encounter during use and enhance their willingness to use technology. The establishment of trust can stem from factors such as the reliability of technology, privacy protection measures, and the reputation of technology providers (Jiang et al., 2022). Choung et al. (2023) also support the idea that when users have a high level of trust in technology, their intention to use it will significantly increase. Therefore, trust in technology has a positive impact on the intention to use it.